Ancient Apocalypse | Lost Cities of the Ancient World: Sodom, Doggerland, and Atlantis
The apocalypse refers to the destruction of entire civilizations, whether by their own doing or external forces. While many modern people don’t consider it a threat, some civilizations have already faced such an end. Ancient texts, including the Torah, Qur’an, and Bible, tell stories of great floods, like Noah’s Ark, where floods wiped out life. Civilizations across the world have similar stories, such as the lost city of Atlantis, showcasing water’s power to both cleanse and destroy.
Scientists have uncovered a lost world beneath the North Sea, called Doggerland, which existed around 10,000 years ago. This area was rich in resources and supported a thriving Stone Age population. But Doggerland no longer exists, prompting the question: What happened to it? The North Sea was formed at the end of the Ice Age, about 15,000 years ago, and it has long been a source of food for humans. In 1931, a fishing boat discovered a bone harpoon point in the sea, which led to further investigations.
Archaeologist Grahame Clark studied the find, suspecting it came from the Mesolithic period. He worked with botanists Harry and Margaret Godwin to analyze the peat the harpoon was found in. They discovered ancient plants that were not native to the sea, indicating a once-dry landmass beneath the water. Their findings pointed to the existence of a landmass called Doggerland, which was once inhabited by humans.
In the 1990s, archaeologist Bryony Coles, using geological maps from oil exploration, supported the theory of Doggerland’s existence. She named it Doggerland, and it was theorized that it once supported rivers, hills, and human life. Evidence of this ancient land can still be found along beaches like Zandmotor, where prehistoric bones and other artifacts have surfaced.
The Bradford team used hydrophones to map the sea floor, revealing potential oil or gas deposits. This method helped visualize Doggerland, a land now submerged under the North Sea. After months of waiting, the team saw a river, once active during the Mesolithic period. This discovery opened a window into a lost world, showing rivers, lakes, hills, and preserved archaeological sites under the sea. However, the team still had questions about the fate of the people who lived there.
Scientists studied Doggerland’s climate, revealing that after the Ice Age, it thawed rapidly, supporting plants and animals. The area became more hospitable, with forests and animal herds. Researchers looked at archaeological sites like Star Carr in Yorkshire, which uncovered evidence of a thriving Mesolithic settlement, showing that people were skilled in crafting tools, hunting, and building structures. These people were not primitive but lived in organized communities.
Further research uncovered unusual finds, such as antler headdresses, which suggested spiritual or ceremonial practices. Meanwhile, DNA analysis of Cheddar Man, one of the oldest Mesolithic humans found in England, revealed that these people had dark skin, curly hair, and blue eyes, offering a more accurate picture of their appearance.
The Bradford team then took core samples from Doggerland, revealing a dramatic rise in sea levels around 8,000 years ago, possibly due to the collapse of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. This rapid flooding threatened Doggerland’s low-lying landscape, submerging it within generations. As the sea levels rose, many people likely relocated, moving to what is now Britain, Europe, and beyond.
Though some adapted to sea life, others were displaced by the flooding. The fate of those who remained on Doggerland remains unknown.
The team examines core samples suggesting a powerful force, like a tsunami, may have caused a massive disturbance. This connects to the Storegga Slide, a huge submarine landslide off Norway, which occurred when vast glacial-era sediments slid into the sea. The weak layers of sediment were easily triggered, possibly by an earthquake, creating a tsunami that spread across the North Atlantic to Greenland and the UK. Simulations show Doggerland, a now-submerged landmass, would have been devastated by the wave, especially since it was low-lying. The tsunami’s impact on Doggerland was catastrophic, likely wiping out human populations and disrupting their way of life.
Archaeologists find no human artifacts after the tsunami, indicating its destructive force. Doggerland, once a thriving land connecting northern Europe, was swallowed by the sea. The Mesolithic people of Doggerland, vulnerable to the tsunami as they returned to the shore in autumn, faced a dramatic end. Rising sea levels and further destruction followed, making it harder for people to survive. The Storegga tsunami marked the beginning of the end for Doggerland, as no artifacts from after 6,100 BC have been found, underscoring its devastating impact.
Later, the story shifts to Sodom, a biblical city known for its perceived wickedness. The Bible describes its destruction by fire and brimstone, with Lot and his family spared after passing a test of hospitality. The story traditionally focused on sexual immorality, but later interpretations emphasized hospitality instead. Archaeologists have sought Sodom’s ruins, with Bab edh-Dra in Jordan being a strong candidate. Excavations reveal signs of destruction, including fire and buried skeletons, aligning with the biblical narrative. However, some doubt this theory, citing the time gap between the destruction of Bab edh-Dra and nearby Numeira.
The Bible should be used cautiously as a geographical source, especially since the events were written down long after they occurred and passed through several languages. Sodom and the other cities of the plain should be viewed as part of a larger puzzle, including both biblical text and archaeological evidence, like ancient maps. The Madaba Map, dating from the 6th century CE, is particularly important as it features Zoar, a city mentioned in the Bible, but not Sodom. Collins and his team focused on the region near the Dead Sea, where they discovered Tall el-Hammam, a massive site believed to be Sodom.
In 2005, Collins began excavating Tall el-Hammam, which turned out to be much larger than expected, with fortified walls, a palace, and several other structures dating back to the Middle Bronze Age. The site was destroyed around 1700 BCE, with evidence of fire and destruction, including pottery shards and human remains that appeared to have been blown by a force. This could be the result of a catastrophic event, such as a volcanic eruption, although no volcano has been found near the site.
Further excavations uncovered massive structures, including a large gateway and towers, indicating Tall el-Hammam was a thriving metropolis. While the evidence suggests this site could be biblical Sodom, more research is needed to confirm its identity.
A pottery fragment found at Tall el-Hammam has a strange appearance: one side looks like Bronze Age pottery, while the other side appears melted and glassy. Dr. Collins initially believes it could be glazed Islamic pottery, but this type wasn’t produced until much later. The analysis reveals that the melted surface resembles trinitite, a substance formed from the first nuclear bomb detonation in 1945. This discovery suggests the pottery was exposed to extremely high temperatures, similar to the heat of the sun’s surface. Further analysis of the pottery shows zircon that has been altered by intense heat, pointing to an extraordinary event, possibly a meteor airburst. While there’s no crater to confirm a meteor impact, airbursts have occurred in recent history, like in Siberia in 1908 and Chelyabinsk in 2013. These events cause widespread destruction from heat and shockwaves. The evidence at Tall el-Hammam supports the idea that an airburst destroyed the city, with high temperatures and a tsunami-like effect from the nearby Dead Sea. This theory could explain the 700-year gap in habitation at the site. The destruction of Tall el-Hammam bears a striking resemblance to the biblical destruction of Sodom, though some skeptics remain unconvinced due to the rarity of meteor events. However, the team continues to seek more evidence to prove that Tall el-Hammam is indeed the biblical Sodom.
Helike is an ancient city mentioned in Homer’s *Iliad*, where it is listed among the cities sending troops to the Trojan War. The city was prosperous and powerful, known for its temple to Poseidon, which drew pilgrims. Helike was also a political and religious hub in ancient Greece. During the Persian invasions (492-479 BCE), the city avoided conflict, later surviving economic turmoil.
However, in 373 BCE, Poseidon allegedly destroyed the city in a catastrophic event: an earthquake triggered a tidal wave that submerged Helike and wiped out its population. The destruction became a legend, recorded by ancient writers.
Archaeologists later found a bronze coin bearing the name “Helike,” confirming the city’s existence. Further investigation into the writings of the time revealed details about animals fleeing before the catastrophe, which geologist Ian Stewart suggests could be linked to earthquake activity. Researchers believe Helike may have been submerged in the Corinthian Gulf, but locating it was a challenge.
In 1967, famed archaeologist Spyridon Marinatos, who had uncovered the city of Akrotiri, took up the search for Helike. Using sonar imaging to scan the seafloor, Marinatos’ team detected unusual pockmarks on the seabed, possibly indicating man-made structures, and deployed drilling equipment to investigate further.
Sonar scans suggested the presence of underwater features, but the team faced challenges due to muddy conditions in the Corinthian Gulf, making it difficult to identify structures. Katsonopoulou believed these features might be the ancient port of Helike, but needed to confirm by narrowing the search area. Ancient texts revealed that Helike was located 7km east of Aigion and 5.5km from the Cave of Heracles, guiding the search to a specific area.
Despite repeated sonar scans showing only a port, Katsonopoulou suspected Helike had been submerged in an inland lagoon, not the Gulf. The search revealed that the site was now dry land, suggesting the lagoon had silted up over time. Surface surveys confirmed ancient settlements existed, but initial excavations uncovered Roman remains. Later, they found pottery from the Classical period, linking the site to Helike. Finally, in 2001, they discovered buildings dating to the 4th century BC, confirming Helike’s existence.
Further analysis of soil samples revealed marine organisms, supporting the theory that the ruins had once been submerged. Katsonopoulou’s team also found evidence of tsunami damage, consistent with ancient accounts of Helike’s destruction. However, the city had likely experienced earlier seismic destruction, with evidence of the ground swallowing the city before the tsunami hit. Geologists studying fault lines provided insights into the seismic activity that contributed to the disaster.
